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This overview of the principles of scientific research includes the following sections below:
I. Scientific Meta-Analysis
II. Risk Analysis & Statistics
III. Systems Analysis, Rapid Development, & Lifecycles
` IV. Principles of Logical and Mathematical Analysis
V. How to define Objectives
VI.Truth Analysis (montalk.net)
VII.[project completion steps]
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I. Scientific Meta-Analysis (Formally comparing tests with different results)
1.Information which should be included in every test or research program:
1.Detailed and properly analyzed results of trials
2.Information about how the trials were planned, designed, conducted, and assessed
3.Data on studies
4.Information about how a test product is made
5. Phases of studies
6. Means of testing controls to avoid bias-randomized such as
double-blind placebo-controlled trial
2. Scientific Methods
1. Means of testing controls to avoid bias-randomize such as
double-blind placebo-controlled trial
2. Evaluating research papers and tests of equipment
3. Philosophy of Science & Logical Positivism
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II. Risk Analysis & Statistics
Risk Analysis Overview
Data > Model(Logic, Math, Space, Partitions)>Description of Data(Mean, Variance(Confidence
in sample of population), Deviation(Type of distribution(normal, uniform, triangular, cumulative,
beta, special, Probability Dist Funct, Expectation(Average of Probability Dist Funct.Decision
Tree with prob weights for alternatives, hypothesis testing))
>Risk(Planning, assessment(alternatives(create, propose,select), risk reduction), analysis,
regression analysis for discovery of distribution>fit data to equation, arrays of data>linear
regression, arrays of distribution) handling)
Determine information needs>Define system characteristics>Identify analogous systems
>Subsystem breakout>Asses data availability - select analogy
>Describe new system , gather detail data, collect program descriptive data
>analyze & normalize data
Definitions of Risk:
Risk: Probability of an undesirable event occurring and the significance of the consequences of the
occurrence.
Traditional Risk: a situation in which an outcome is subject to an uncontrollable random event stemming from
a know probability distribution.
Principles of Risk:
An event my have low likelihood of occurring but the consequences of the event should it occur can be
catastrophic.
Risk exists only in relation to the two states of uncertainty - total failure 0% probability, and total success
100 % probability
Program a purpose to achieve a specific set of goals - what are the events or facets that may reasonably occur
which will prevent the achievement of the program goals
Occurrences whose outcome are irrelevant to program goals have no risk
For further reference please review: Risk Management Concepts and Guidance D 1.6/2 R 49/4
Defense Systems Management College Ft. Belfoir VA
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III. Systems Design
Phases in the Development of a System or Program (Rapid Development Cycle)
Program Development-Program Lifecycle:
a.Problem and input/output specifications phase.
a. Define problem.
b.Input/output formats.
c.General problem structure.
d.Functional(data items and dictionary(type, width, preprossesing) and performance(memory req,speed,
quantity of data items) requirements.
e.Objectives, feasibility.
f.Processing and logic requirements
b.Analysis or Design Phase
a.Top-down heirarchichal design, stepwise refinement, flowcharting, psuedocode
b.Design Alternatives
c.Implementation Phase
a.Translate from pseudo-code to programming language code.
d.Debugging and testing phase.
a.Top-down test.
b.Walkthrough test.
c. Test data (Ideal-test data would follow every possible path through program flowchart)
(Realistic-test data should follow every branch to be taken from every decision point)
Test typical, abnormal, and invalid data.
e.Program maintenance and documentation phase.
a.Documentation: Clear statement of problem objectives.
b. Program logic flow.
c. Coding time, changes, and authors.
d. Users manuel.
e. Operators manuel
Other Systems Lifecycles:
1. System Requirements Definition
2. System Design Alternatives
3. Implementation
System External Specifications
System Internal Specifications
Program Development
4.System Testing and Maintenance
5. Post Implementation Review
1.Concept (System Requirements Review, Concept and Planning Documents)
2.Requirements (Software Specification Reviews, Software Requirements, Interface Requirements)
3.Design(Preliminary Design Review, Critical Design Review, Interface Requirements, Detailed Design,
Top Level Design)
4.Implementation (Coding, Interface Design, Database Design, Source Code)
5.Test(Test Readiness Review, Updated Source Code)
6.Installation & Checkout (Functional and Physical Configuration Audit, Baseline Source Code)
7.Operations & Maintenance (Final Source Code Products)
Planning
Evaluation
risk assessment
Alternative Creation
Alternative Evaluation
risk assessment
Alternative Selection
risk reduction
Implementation
risk reduction
risk management
Rapid Development
Start>Risk Analysis>Prototype>Concept of Operation>Requirements Plan,Recycle Plan>Risk Analysis>Prototype
2>Simulation>Software Requirements>Requirement Validation>Develop Plan>Risk Analysis>Prototype 3>Model>Software Product
Design>Design Valid and Verify>
Development Plan>Integration & Test>Risk Analysis>Operational Prototype>Bench Marks>Detailed Design>Unit Test
Code>Integration & Test> Acceptance Test
Waterfall Lifecycle (Lorenz 1993)
analysis>specification>design>implementation>test>system integration>maintenance
evolution (integrate(test(code(design(analysis))))
Project Management Plan
Software Project Plan (Project Overview, Project Organization, Managerial Process, Technical Process(methods, tools,
techniques, software documentation, project support functions)
Work Packages, schedule, & budget)
System Software Specs
Operational Concept Document
Statement of Work
Work Breakdown Structure
Schedule
Cost Estimate
Contract
Proposals
Legal & Administrative Provisions
Systems Development Process
Software Engineering (Requirements, Design,Code, Test, Integrate)
Test
Systems Engineering ( Operational Requirements, Requirements Analysis, Design)
Test
Hardware Engineering (Requirements, Design, Integrate)
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IV. Principles of Logical and Mathematical Analysis
Mathematical Systems
Solution Methods: Solution Types:
1. Fourier Transform Linear
2. State/Variable Nonlinear
3. Function Space Discrete
Biological
Distributitve
Fundamentals of Math
1. Propositions>Consequence>Axiomatitaztion>Algorithm>Proofs>Sets>Relations>Boolean Alg.>Axioms of
Natural Numbers.
Logics
Propositions, Operations,Truth Table,Quantifiers, Universe, Induction, Equivalence,
Sets (Notations,Relations, Operations)
Relations, Graphs, & Trees
Recurrence, Recursion
Reading, Writing & Proving Mathematical Proofs
1. Forward & Backward Methods
Proof: Work Forward if get stuck work backwards
Hypothesis> Conclusion A>B B<A
2.Contradiction Method
-A>-B
3.Construction Method
There is an object with y certain properties such that something happens
object : Integer N
properties: N> 2
something happens: N(2) - 5n + 6 = 0
1. Turn to forward process to construct, guess, and produce desired object
2. Show that the object your concerned about satisfies the certain property
3. Show that something happens
4. Uniqueness Method
There is an object with a certain property such that something happens
1. Establish existence of such an object by using the construction/contradiction
method
2. assume x is an object with the certain property such that the something happens
3. assume y is an object with certain properties such that something happens
4. work forward from 2,3, and the hypothesis A to establish that x & y are the same
x=y.
5. Contraposition
1. -b>-A, 2. Assume A & -B are true 3. Work forward from -B to obtain -A.
2. Arithmetic & Algebra
Numbers
Axioms & Consequences of Real Numbers (Natural, Integers, Rational, Real, Exponential,
Complex)
Theory of Numbers
Expressions (Polynomial, Factoring, Fraction)
Equations (Linear, Quadratic, Inequalities)
Functions (Linear, Composite, Inverse, Identity, Polynomial, Rational, Partial,Vector, Combinations
Zero's of Polynomials, Exponential, Logarithmic, Trigonometric,Time, Inective,
Subjective,Bijective)
Groups
Linear Algebra
Polynomials
Rings & Ideals
Fields
Lattices
Structure
Systems of Equations (Linear & 2 Variables, Linear and 2+Variables, Matrix Solutions, Matrix Algebra,
Abstract Algebra Systems(Operations,Group, Rings,Fields)
Boolean Algebra
Monoids & Automata
Vectors & Fields
Combinatorics
Permutation
Counting
3.Analysis
Convergence (Sequences(Monotone), Metric Spaces, Filters, Uniform Space)
Functions (Continuity, Differential, Functions of N-Dimensional Space)
Integral & Measure & Extension
Distributions
Probability
Derivatives, Applications, & Techniques(Partial Diff,
Integrals, Applications & Techniques(Multiple Integrals)
Series (Infinite, Convergent, Divergent, Alternating, Power Series, Binomial Series)
Other
Risk Analysis
Data> Model(Logic, Math, Space, Partitions)>Description of Data(Mean, Variance(Confidence
in sample of population), Deviation(type of distribution(normal, uniform, triangular, cumulative,
beta, special, Probability Dist Funct, Expectation(Average of Probability Dist Funct.Decision
Tree with prob weights for alternatives, hypothesis testing))
>Risk(Planning, assessment(alternatives(create, propose,select), risk reduction), analysis,
regression analysis for discovery of distribution>fit data to equation, arrays of data>linear
regression, arrays of distribution) handling,)
Modeling & Simulation
Physics 5 Models Determinate>(Transformations)>Nondeterminate
Newton Quantum 1 & 2
Eienstein Bohr Orbit, Arrays, & Particles
Bohm (Holographic) Wave Equations
2nd order
other order
5 levels of Cause - Aristotle & Newton Paradigm
4.Geometry
Analytic
Points, Vectors, Reflections
Planes (Projective & Affine)
Classical Hyberbolic & Euclidean Geometry
NonEucledian Geometry
Analytic Geometry
Algebraic Geometry
Higher Geometry
Diff. Geometry of Cubes & Spaces
Convex Figures
Topology
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V. Objectives:
How to define objectives
1. List Real World Needs
2. List Real World Performance Goals (General)
Objectives (Derived, 1 limits of goal, 2.how to access goal by tests, 3.describe
tests, under x conditions the behavior is with criteria of
and lower limits of (performance must be at least )..,
objectives to describe the performance/behaviors desired
and criteria to judge by up to x standards under y
conditions , and practical feedback based on ..
Content (Organized & Sequenced to achieve the objective) Steps of Task,
Analyze Task embedded ideas and skills,
Methods (Introduction, Instruction (Explanation, Demonstration, Practice &
Feedback) Conclusion) Motivations,
How to do
Evaluation(Tests & Observations) Exam, Demonstrate Skill
Examples:
Real World Need: X Needs Health
Goal : Fitness Program
Objectives: Nutrition(Concepts, Principles, Skills), Flexibility( ), Strength( ),
Cardiovascular( )
Condition : Given 3 menus such as 1 2 3
Behavior : the student will rewrite the menus 1 2 3
Criteria: to conform t the American Health Association
Lower Limits : for all 3 meals with no errors
Levels of Objectives:
6 Levels of Cognitive Objectives
Knowledge - remember information
Comprehension - explain , summarize information
Application - Use idea in appropriate situation
Analysis - Break information into parts to find elements, relationships, principles
Synthesis - Put together elements into a new pattern
Evaluation - make judgments about the value of a thing
Intellectual (Use Symbols), Verbal (Tell information), cognitive (manages ones
learning), motor skills ( exact movements), attributes (make choices)
Discriminations ( Notice sensory difference)
Given hypothesis access evidence sources
Validity of hypothesis - causal relations between variables
Flaws in relation between variables
Other hypothesis for evidence given
Evidence counter to hypothesis
Summary Statement include all areas of doubt
10-Steps Simple Steps to a Complete Project
• Concept
• Modularize (select technologies)
• Proof of Concept
• Hardware Design
• Software Design
• Prototype
• Cost Reduction
• Final Design Completed
• License Final Design
• Manufacturing
• Reality (Product to Market)
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